Analysis of Human Fossil Findings in Indonesia

Analysis of Human Fossil Findings in Indonesia Indonesia is an important country to examine about human origins and evolution, due to many sites within central Java, such as Sangiran and Ngandong which account for 75 percent of the world’s Homo erectus findings (Frederick Worden, 2011). Evolution of Homo sapiens in Indonesia has shown Indonesian archipelago was inhabited by Homo erectus, which were known as the â€Å"Java Man†, between 1.5 million years ago and resent as 35,000 years ago. About 800,000 years ago, some of the earliest hominids of the archipelago made tools, constructed boats, used fire, and had a language (Fredrick Worden, 2011). Furthermore, about 600,000 years ago, these hominids have developed a more complex and civilized culture which was dispersing throughout Indonesia (Fredrick Worden, 2011). Patterns of evolution started to form through hunting, fishing, and creating communities which depended on tools made of materials such as shell, wood, bamboo, and stone (Fredrick Worden, 2011). The most recent discoveries in human fossils, were in 2004 on the island of Flores, Indonesia, which is located between Bali and Timor. Flores, Indonesia is one of many Wallacean islands, which lie east of Wallaces Line and west of Lydekkers Line.Teams of archeologists found an entirely new type of hominid species at the Liang Bua excavation site, which has since been named Homo floresiensis. This type of hominid has been considered a new hominid type that had locally evolved, was a considerably smaller hominid, and was mixed between Homo erectus and modern humans (Fredrick Worden, 2011). Homo floresiensis was a dwarf human, which lived at Liang Bua between at least 95,000 and 13,000 years ago. The species was believed to have used stone tools, fire, and hunted small animals found on Flores (Foley, 2005). The newly found remains had a skull that appeared to belong to a hominine species, possibly belonging to a child considering its size, but once the remaining parts of its skull and teeth were found and they concluded it did not belong to a child, but an adult. The remains of this hominines partial skeleton was found and, the likes of which had never been discovered before.Today, this specimen is referred to as Liang Bua 1 (Smithsonian Institution, 2014). The earliest modern humans coexisted with their hominid relatives for thousands of years, although there is no evidence of this at Liang Bua (Fredrick Warden, 2011). Although Indonesia is extremely diverse ethnically, with more than 350 distinct ethnic groups that are recognized, along with 13 languages spoken by 1 million speakers (Fredrick Warden, 2011). Human immigration to the islands of Indonesia occurred as long ago as 3000BC, and was continuous for about 3000 years. People immigrated to Indonesia in small groups and established independent civilizations all around the coast, occasionally coexisting with the hostile descendants of â€Å"Java Man† (Frederick Worden, 2011). In the next several millennia Indonesia developed cultural characteristics that still exist today such as rice agriculture, ceramic and metal technology and the expansion of long distance seal travel and trade. Earlier inhabitants used horticultural economy in which they grew cereals, created pottery and stone tools during the period 2500 to 500 B.C (Glasscase, 2011). During the period between 500 B.C. and A.D. 500, as the people of the archipelago increasingly interacted with South and East Asia, metals and domesticated farm animals were introduced (Glasscase, 2011). The Dongson culture, which originated in Vietnam and southern China around 1000 BC, spread to Indonesia, bringing irrigated rice growing techniques, husbandry skills; buffalo sacrifice rituals, bronze casting, the custom of erecting megaliths, and ikat weaving methods. By 700 BC, Indonesia was dotted with permanent villages where life was linked to rice production (Lonely Planet, 2014). These early settlers were animists, believing all objects had a life force or soul. The spirits of the dead had to be honored, as they could still help the living and influence natural events, while evil spirits had to be warded off with offerings and ceremonies. As there was a belief in the afterlife, weapons and utensils were left in tombs for use in the next world. By the 1st century AD, small kingdoms, were little more than collections of villages with a leader, which evolved from Java (Lonely Planet, 2014). The island’s constant hot temperature, abundant rainfall and volcanic soil were ideal for wet field rice cultivation. The organization this required may explain why the Javanese developed a seemingly more successful society than the other islands. It is not certain how Hinduism and Buddhism arrived in Indonesia. The oldest works of Hindu art in Indonesia were found in Sulawesi and Sumatra in 3rd century AD (Fredrick Worden, 1992). One theory suggests that the developing courts invited Brahman priests from India to watch over on spiritual and ritual sacrifices, thereby providing status to those in control (Fredrick and Worden, 1992). In earlier kingdoms, the Hindu-Buddhist kingdom of Sriwijaya rose in Sumatra (an Indonesian island) during the 7th century AD (Lonely Planet, 2014). It was the first major Indonesian sea power able to control the trade in Southeast Asia by being located on the Strait of Melaka. The Buddhist Sailendra dynasty and the Hindu Mataram dynasty flourished in Central Java (the largest Indonesian island) between the 8th and 10th centuries (Lonely Planet, 2014). While Sriwijaya’s wealth came from trade, Javanese kingdoms like Mataram had human labor at their disposal and developed as agrarian societies. At the end of the 10th century, the Mataram kingdom declined. The centre of power shifted from Central to East Java and it was a period when Hinduism and Buddhism were united and when Javanese culture began to come into its own (Pearson Education, 2000-2014). A series of kingdoms held until the 1294 rise of the Majapahit kingdom, which grew during the reign of Hayam Wuruk from 1350 to 1389 (Pearson Education, 2000-2014). Its territorial expansion can be credited to military commander Gajah Mada, who helped the kingdom claim control over the archipelago, claiming power over smaller kingdoms and obtaining trading rights from them. After Hayam Wuruk’s death in 1389, the kingdom began a steady decline (Pearson Education, 2000-2014). The first Islamic inscriptions found in Indonesia date from the 11th century. Islam first took hold in northern Sumatra,(a western Indonesian island) where Arab traders had settled by the 13th century. From the 15th and 16th centuries, Indonesian rulers made Islam the state religion. By the 15th century, the trading kingdom of Melaka (a small Malaysian state) was reaching the height of its power and had embraced Islam (Lonely Planet, 2014). Its influence strengthened the spread of Islam through the archipelago. By the time of the collapse of the Majapahit kingdom (based on the island of Java) in the early 1500s, many of its satellite kingdoms had already declared themselves independent Islamic states (Lonely Planet, 2014). Much of their wealth came from trading spices, and Islam followed the trade routes across the archipelago. By the end of the 16th century, a new sea power had emerged on Sulawesi, which had been settled by Malay traders and whose realm spread far beyond the region (Lonely Planet, 2014). Beginning in 1602, the Dutch slowly established themselves as rulers of Indonesia and eventually laid the foundation of the Indonesian state, by taking advantage of the weakness of the small kingdoms that had replaced that of Majapahit (Pearson Education, 2000-2014). During 300 years of rule, the Dutch developed the Netherlands East Indies into one of the worlds richest colonial possessions, extracting natural resources through local elites but doing little to modernize Indonesia. By the end of the Dutch rule and after many wars and lives taken, the Indonesian people wanted to stand alone and become united. The Indonesian people started to receive a Dutch education for the children of the Indonesian elite, and with that came Western political ideas of freedom and democracy (Lonely Planet, 2014). However, the first ideas of Indonesian nationalism came from Islamic movements. Despite Dutch repression, the nationalist movement found a unified voice. In a historic announcement in 1928, the All Indonesia Youth Congress proclaimed it’s Youth Pledge, adopting the notions of one national identity, one country and one language (Lonely Planet, 2014). The battle for independence wavered between warfare and diplomacy. Under the Linggarjati Agreement of November 1946, the Dutch recognized the Republican government and both sides agreed to work towards an Indonesian federation under a Dutch commonwealth (Pearson Education, 2000-2014). The agreement was soon swept aside as war escalated. The Dutch mounted a large offensive in July 1947, causing the United Nations to step in (Pearson Education, 2000-2014). In February 1948 the Dutch launched another attack on the Republicans, breaking the United Nations agreement. Under pressure from the United States, which threatened to withdraw its postwar aid to the Netherlands, the Dutch negotiated for independence. On December 27, 1949 the Indonesian flag was raised at Jakarta’s Istana Merdeka, and power was officially handed over (Pearson Education, 2000-2014). References Foley, J. (2005, April 01).  Homo floresiensis: The hobbit. Retrieved from http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/homs/flores.html Frederick, W., Worden, R. (1992). Early Indonesia. Retrieved from http://www.shsu.edu/~his_ncp/Indones.html Frederick, W., Worden, R. (2011).  Indonesia a country study. (6thed.). Washington, DC: Government Printing Office. Glasscase, F. (2011, June 01). Indonesia uncovered: Prehistoric indonesia. Retrieved from http://indonesiauncovered.blogspot.com/2011/06/prehistoric-indonesia.html Lonely Planet. (2014). History of Indonesia. Retrieved from http://www.lonelyplanet.com/indonesia/history ONeil, D. (1999).  Homo erectus. Retrieved from http://anthro.palomar.edu/homo/homo_2.htm Pearson Education. (2000-2014). Indonesia. Retrieved from http://www.factmonster.com/ipka/A0107634.html Prof. Palmer, Soc.3597.01, January 2014. Smithsonian Institution. (2014, January 27).  Hobbits on flores, Indonesia. Retrieved from http://humanorigins.si.edu/research/asian-research/hobbits

network :: essays research papers

What are the key threats to network and PC security today? Whether by malicious intent or accident, people are the main source of trouble, PC security problems can range from serious fraud, data theft or copyright breaches, through to work lost due to the introduction of viruses. A security breach can paralyse a network in a matter of minutes, as several high profile companies have discovered to their cost. The financial cost of putting the damage right can be very high. In addition, the impact on customer confidence can result in a severely damaged business reputation, which takes months or even years to reverse. The cost of clearing up the mess that the indiscriminate hacker leaves behind can run into millions - and for some companies it can have catastrophic financial consequences. The Department of Trade and Industry (DTI) released the findings of a survey of one thousand people responsible for IT Security in UK business during the recent InfoSec show. The results do not make for encouraging reading. The report was compiled for the DTI by Price water house Coopers and concluded that breaches of security are now costing UK businesses up to a staggering eighteen billion pounds every year. However, the trend is abundantly clear that Security is still regarded by many senior management teams as being insufficiently important for them to take appropriate action. Ensure the security of important information on your network. Financial reports, district personnel records, state and federal compliance forms all of your student records: A Network Analysis will determine the level of security of your network. A Network Analysis will also detect any unauthorized wireless devices illegally using your valuable bandwidth. A Network Analysis will determine the reliability of your network, It will create a map of your network, measure the bandwidth and determine the usage down to the specific computer desktop level. A Network Analysis can identify if there are valuable resources being wasted on your network. Based on the data gathered, a Network Analysis will enable you to make informed decisions regarding the allocation of resources, both financial and technical. Network Security Analysis addresses the issues of network security by providing an impartial view from an independent source. The analysis not only focuses on external issues but also addresses security within an organisation. A detailed report would highlight areas of concern and make recommendations as to where improvements could be made providing information on both hardware and software available to improve security.

Buka culture, Oceania

Residents of Bukas are called Buka after the island and though no English definition of the word can be found it most likely originated from a Malaysian word. Foreigners refer to the people as Bukas but in the country they are know by their clans. It can be assumed that there are rude names that names used for respect within the different inhabitants but I have a feeling that to learn those one must actually visit the island. 2- The Buka reside on Buka Island, Bougainville Province, in Papua New Guinea.Buka Island itself is separated from Bougainville by Buka Passage, a swift flowing sea channel. There are five small inhabited islands found off of the west coast. The east coast of the island has many cliffs as it is unprotected from the ocean wind. The west coast has the Richard Parkinson Range, with its highest peak, Mt. Bei which is 458 meters high. The entire island is surrounded by coral reef rings, with large lagoons on the west coast.3- There are two distinct languages spoken o n Buka, though with dialects there are about 4 different languages, Hanahan Halia is spoken along the east coast, Haku is spoken in the north coast villages, Selau a dialect of Halia is spoken in the Bougainville peninsula, and Solos is spoken within the North Bougainvillean Austronesian families. Halia and Haku speakers can easily understand each other, with Selau being there most distant dialect. However Solos and Halia speakers do have difficulty understanding each other.Tok Pisin is also used as a lingua franca between the three different dialects and this language is spoken throughout Papua New Guinea. All of these languages are part of the North Bougainvillean Austronesian languages which can be traced back to South China and Formosa. There is a clear division between the south and north of this island mainly dealing with those that immigrated to these areas. 4- Most settlements are villages and hamlets. The island itself is divided into five electorates, the pewit, Halia, Hag ogohoe, Tsitalato and the Haku.These areas are connected by narrow paths and through trade partners. These villages would move and change depending on the weather and with new alliances or reorganizations of clans. Some of the first towns grew around missions and near airstrips or by good harbours. This area did not have much European settlement until after WWII so there is still much of the traditional life present. The main town, also called the capital, is located on Buka Passage and on most maps is still labelled â€Å"Chinatown†. The family-household is still the basic social unit and can consist of many generations.The most important buildings in the villages are the tsuhana. Funerals, reconciliations, memorials and feasts are all held at the tsuhana, and the building for the tsuhana is quite elaborate as a pig must be sacrificed for each step of the construction. Town are the center of commerce and then reach out to the nearest villages. There are not many roads and sh ips and air travel are needed to reach certain areas. Due to the geography much of the inner island is not populated. Currently at the capital there is more modern buildings arrived as the settlement has grown to incorporate businesses and some tourism.This urban Mecca contains representatives for banks, the government and agricultural businesses as well as some resorts on the beach. 5 – Buka houses contain many generations, as many of three. One type of house built in this area is made of silt. Silt houses last between 20 and 30 years and are constructed above the ground to allow for the high tide. These houses are quite large and require about 20 men to set the posts (the foundation) of the house. There are also traditional houses made of wood, huts made of woven reeds and roofs that are thatched with hay. Almost all houses are built up on stilts.If no paint is used then most house are a brown or beige colour, as paint is a big upkeep because it has to be reapplied so often due to the humidity. 6 – Bukas economics are mainly based off of agricultural, as the sweet potato is a main staple in the villages not only for food but also to trade. Copra and cocoa are cash crops and there is some small amount of money to be made in spices and vanilla. Other popular crops are breadfruit, yams, taro, rice, bananas, mango, coconuts and other fruits. Many animals have been domesticated for food and birds, marsupials, cassowaries and turtles are hunted for their meat.Tea is drunk throughout the day. There is also a substantial amount of fishing done and collecting shellfish as most villages are very close to the coast. Many families keep chickens and pigs those pigs are considered to be very important and only used for rituals and formal occasions. A lot of time is spent collecting water as fresh water is in short supply. Tourism has slowly sprung up on the island allowing for some small change sin income though moist businesses found in the main city along the Burka Passage all deal with agriculture products.Most villagers produce their own food and townspeople may have their own garden or they trade with village women who sell their produce at markets. Small trade stores supple kerosene lanterns, matches, blankets, clothing, soap, tinned fish, tea, sugar and rice while large urban supermarkets import expensive food items and other products. There is also some work in the gold mining and oil industry though most industry is horticultural. 7 – The political system in Buka is based off of chiefs though both men and women can be â€Å"chiefs†.These chiefs then build alliances and trade routes with other chiefs and clans. Most authority positions are inherited and chieftainships, called tsuono, though many times this heredity is ignored. The tsunono represents the interests of their clan. Each tsuono will look over about 20 families though many tsunono clans can come together under the tsunono mal, of a superior clan. The mo st powerful of all the chiefs, the munihil, is put forth or â€Å"elected† by the tsunono, and has power over clans of a moiety class.(Moiety classes are associated with prestige, with Nakaripa and Naboen being higher class and Nakas and Natasi of lower class. ) Moiety class is important for resolving conflicts and organizing authority. Women can also be chiefs but they are looked on as sacred objects held with great respect. Though ever since the Bougainville civil war women have become more prominent in leadership roles. Those that want to participate in higher politics within the Papua New Guinea government must be very wealthy and use the traditional campaigning methods; much of popular politics does not exist throughout Buka.8 – Kinship terminology is Hawaiian and descent in is matrilineal. Most newlyweds tend to live with their maternal relatives at first but will move to the wife’s native land as children technically belong to the wife’s clan. So u nder this kinship all females in the parent’s generation are referred to as mothers and all males in the parental generation are fathers. All brothers and male cousins are referred to as brother and all sisters and female cousins are called sister. 9 – There are two types of marriage offered in Buka that are clearly described in the marriage act of 1963.Customary marriage is where the individuals follow the customs of their tribes and you do not need any proof of marriage beyond those of the traditional custom, though the definition of a native of automatic citizen is not very clear. The extended family is very important to the formation of the marriage, husbands may have several wife’s and the husband or husbands family must pay the bride price. Once they are of age men and women spend time in supervised courtship sessions. Exogamy is a must and women marry outside of their clans most of the time.Is a women is unhappy then she is able to leave her husband, get divorced and return back to her clan. A statutory marriage must be performed by a district officers, Registrars or ministers of Religion or anyone else that has authority from the government. Marriages must have seven day notice, and all participants must be over 21 years of age unless they have their parents consent. The ceremony must have two witnesses and you will receive a marriage certificate. 10 – Both men and women are involved with horticulture though there is still a clear division of labour as well as payment.Men will clear the forest so that the women can plant gardens and keep the pigs. The crops and cash crops are planted and tended by men, banana, sugarcane, cocoa and coffee and though the women will help to pick these crops the majority of the money is given to the men. Women do all of the cooking though both the men and women will look after the children. In towns and large villages the women take car of the domestic chores and child care while the husbands ar e at work. If a woman has a job then one of her family will take care of the chores.Women have begun to take part in men’s jobs though they deal with a lot of prejudice and harassment, while men that do traditional women’s work are stigmatized. Females are very important to building authority as the participate in female exchange event and redeem matrilineage lands. The men with the most power have achieved it only with the help of his female relatives. As times change women are slowly redefining their roles though there are not many job opportunities for them. 11 – Current religious beliefs are Christians divided between Roman Catholics and Methodists.There has been a lot of assimilation of indigenous and Christian beliefs ad God is called Sunahan. Sunahan is a creator figure from Buka tradition. Traditionally Buka religion focused around keeping good relationships between the living and the spirits of the dead, including the spirits that inhabit all named geog raphical features such as pools of water and large rocks. Spirits can impart positive and negative attitudes and they are all powerful. Spirits are important for success in fighting, horticulture and all things sexual.Bukas communicate with spirits using fire mainly to celebrate funerals. Sensory is also believed in and there are two kinds of sorcery, one that is used by the chief to punish transgressors and contemporary sorcery which is secret and is illegal, it was thought to have been brought in from outside of Buka. IN current society most people still have knowledge of sorcery and use spells to promote, healing, gardening, prevent minor illnesses and to bring about love. Most rituals focus on health and fertility and focus in maturation and future success of those participating.Initiates will find their spirit guide that will help them in their life. Bukas use both traditional and western medicine to overcome illnesses. Western medicine is used to deal with symptoms while tradi tional methods are used to uncover the cultural cause of the illness. There is a hospital in the main city, though most villages will have a mid-wife or other lightly trained women to deal with medical issues. There is not many medical trained professionals available outside of the urban areas so traditional medicine is still prevalent throughout the island.13 – Buka is actually the site of a large social movement called Hahalis Welfare Society. This is referred to as a cargo cult by the church and Australian government. This society was established as a result of new taxes. They were supported by cash crops and ‘baby gardens’ in which young women were encouraged to build the societies population. Over 400 Australian police were needed to restore order. Eventually the society became very prominent supported the Me’ekamui Onoring Pontoku (Fifty Toea Movement) which was a source of much conflict at the end of the 1980s.This society was one of the first to di splay Bougainvillean nationalism and brought about many militant formations. 14 – Barnard, A. , (2006) Patterns of Masculine Protest among the Buka, Journal of Personality, 11 (4), 302-311 Haviland, W. , (2002) Cultural Anthropology, Wadsworth Publishing Resture, J. , (2008), Bougainville History, http://www. janesoceania. com/bougainville_history/index. htm, accessed November 29, 2008 Zimmer-Tamakoshi, L, (2007) Culture of Papua New Guinea, http://www. everyculture. com/No-Sa/Papua-New-Guinea. html, accessed November 29, 2008

Cyber Crime And Cyber Terrorism - 1801 Words

Cyber risks can be divided into the following groups (Marsh, 2013): 1. Physical loss of systems – Physical information technologies systems, i.e., computers, servers and other electronic equipment are required for the cyber activity. Consequently, it is very important to consider the risks related to the damage or loss of the physical electronic equipment. Risks can be for example, internal water damage in the office building damaging the computers and other equipment or fire in server room as a result of temperature change and other risks. 2. Cyber-crime and cyber terrorism – Cyber-crime is illegal actions taken by criminals for financial gain, which is done by the use of the internet and other electronic systems in order to illegally access or attack information and services used by business and citizens (CabinetOffice, 2011). Acts that are directed towards the influencing or defeating the particular government or state are called cyber terrorism. Businesses operating in areas that are linked to the government, for example communications, transport, health must be most concerned to cyber terrorism; as they are the biggest target for a cyber-terrorism attacks (Marsh, 2013). Cyber-crime cost of UK business and citizens is valued at  £27 billion annually. A considerable portion of this cost comes from the theft of intellectual property, which is estimated at  £9.2 billion. The main loser as a result of cyber-crime is UK business which cost is estimated at  £21 billion. MainShow MoreRelatedHow to Overcome Cyb er Terrorism and Cyber Crime2458 Words   |  10 PagesCERTAINTY OF CONTRACT There are two aspects to the issue of uncertainty. (1) The language used may be too vogue in which case, the court is likely to hold that there is no concluded agreement , the contract is void for uncertainty. (2) Failure to reach agreement on a vital or fundamental term of an agreement. SECTION 30 1. 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